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Na rubu znanosti Istraživanja bez granica

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Old 13.01.2007., 11:46   #61
Ima još:

The critical path analysis showed that the production of blocks from
the quarry would not have been a constraint. Additionally, we
determined that blocks could have been prepared in advance and
stockpiled on-site in the event of a shortage of stonecutters. We
assumed a large number of workmen could be recruited on a seasonal
basis to assist in transporting the blocks up the ramps to the
working area, where skilled masons put them in place and built the
corridors and chambers.

The team also worked out the logistics for site preparation, quarry
operations, transportation of the finished limestone from Tura and
granite from Aswan, the creation of a workers' village for permanent
skilled staff, construction of the ramps, performance of the finish
work, and removal of the ramps at the end of construction.

Based on our program management approach and our informed guesses we
concluded that the total project required an average workforce of
13,200 persons and a peak workforce of 40,000 and that it required
two to three years of site preparation, five years of pyramid
construction, and two years of ramp removal, decoration, and other
ancillary tasks. Assembling a workforce of this size—and feeding
it—appear to have been well within the capabilities of the Egyptian
economy at that time if the population was in fact 1 million to 1.5
million.

No records have been found that relate to the design of the Great
Pyramid. However, drawings have been discovered for tombs constructed
during later dynasties. Additionally, plans and other records exist
indicating that at the time of Khufu's reign the Egyptians knew how
to calculate volumes, areas, and angles; that they knew how to level a
site and construct right angles; that they could survey and use solar
and astronomical observations to orient structures; that they
understood the concepts of structural load transfer and apparently
had an idea of the load-bearing capacity of the materials they used;
and that they recognized the need for an adequate foundation for the
structure. Because they could calculate the volume of ramps, we
assume they optimized the planning of the construction to minimize the
materials and labor required just as we would today so that labor
would be expended on the most critical and challenging aspects of the
project. We speculated that the pyramid's design was actually
implemented by a master builder or overseer who had worked on another
pyramid.

Excavations at Giza show old quarry marks and the remains of a
workers' village. Later excavations at Deir el Medina, where
extensive records have been recovered, support the theory that there
was a permanent labor encampment at the site that housed the skilled
stonemasons, draftsmen, and overseers. The village no doubt had the
capacity to support the workforce, because there is evidence of a
bakery—and even tombs for those who died during the course of the
construction. Other aspects of site preparation we considered were
the construction of housing, sanitary facilities, workshops, roads
from the quarry at Giza to the pyramid site, and docks. (The time of
the annual Nile flooding would have been the ideal time to bring in
goods by ship because the floodwaters came within a quarter of a mile
of the Giza site.)

We speculate that the pyramid site was surveyed and then excavated to
bedrock, which would have provided a firm foundation for the pyramid
structure. The Giza plateau was no doubt selected as the site for the
pyramid because of the available limestone and the site's proximity
to the pharaoh's residence. Upon removing the loose material the
builders left a rock ridge that was later incorporated into the
pyramid structure. To avoid handling material any more than was
necessary, it is likely that the cut material was moved to the
location of the construction ramp and placed so it could be part of
the ramp.

Once bedrock was exposed the site was leveled. This was most likely
done by the use of a square level—a right angle with a cross piece
resembling the letter A with a plumb bob that hung from the apex and
registered against the cross piece. Leveling was done in a series of
measurements that established benchmarks along the length of the
foundation.

Another theory held that leveling was done by constructing a series
of mud canals across the site, filling them with water, and measuring
the depth from the water surface to the rock beneath (establishing
baseline measurements and survey points). However, we discarded this
idea because of the effort that would have been involved in hauling
water to cover such a volume of canals and the losses that would have
resulted from evaporation and leakage.

Next, using either solar observations or star sightings, survey
working points were established and corner positions were fixed.
Since the Egyptians worshiped the sun, it is more credible to us that
they understood the movement of the sun and would have measured the
sun's shadow to determine true north. In a simple experiment with the
tools and knowledge available to the ancient Egyptians, we found that
this determination can readily be made.

At this point tunneling to construct the descending corridor and
lower chamber was probably started. A construction gap was left open
in the core blocks while the descending and ascending corridors, the
Grand Gallery, and the King's Chamber were constructed. In this view
of the terrace at the Pyramid of Khufu, square "plugs," believed to
mark an ancient surveryor's measurement posts, are clearly visible.
Quarry operations at Giza began concurrently with the commencement of
site preparation. We assume that the bulk of construction material
came from the area of the site to minimize transport of heavy blocks.
Archaeological evidence supports the contention that there were one
or more quarries on-site. We assumed a workforce of sufficient size to
keep up with the rate of block installation. (A smaller force could
have been used if work started a year in advance to build up a
stockpile of blocks.)
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Old 13.01.2007., 11:48   #62
Naravno i dalje:

The first step in construction would have been to lay the ground
course. This process would have consisted in placing large blocks
with great precision to establish the dimensions of the pyramid. Based
on a survey reported in the literature, the base is square and is
oriented to the four points of the compass to standards that would be
challenging to a builder today. Construction would have proceeded to
add layers above the base, until the next "step" was achieved. Here
the structure would have been carefully leveled again. It would not
have been necessary to level each layer, as this would have increased
the amount of cutting and trimming on each block and would have
wasted material. It is believed that there are 14 to 16 layers per
step and 15 to 17 steps.

We assumed that construction was based on three components: the outer
casing stones—carefully dressed white Tura limestone; an inner layer
of "backing stones"; and the core blocks of Giza limestone, which
were not dressed accurately but were fitted into the inner volume of
the pyramid and then leveled only at the next step (not every course).
Irregular shapes were incorporated into the structure to maximize the
use of available materials. Casing blocks would be field dressed so
as to fit accurately next to and on top of their adjoining blocks.

We considered many concepts to understand how the Egyptians were able
to raise blocks to a height of 481 ft (147 m) with the limited tools
available. We assumed the use of rollers but not wheels or pulleys.
To evaluate the ramp issue we first constructed several mathematical
models that computed the number of blocks per layer and the volume,
height, and other measurements of the blocks. We know the blocks are
not of uniform dimension—that the lower blocks are thicker by as much
as 5 ft (1.5 m) while the thickness drops to 2 ft (0.6 m) or less
near the top. Not having a survey of typical sizes, we made a series
of calculations based on average sizes (see illustration).

Our calculations convinced us that most of the ramp concepts would
have been impractical because they involved a construction effort
greater than that required for the pyramid itself. We assumed that
the Egyptians would not commit resources to building anything more
than minimally required given the fact that the ramp had to be
demolished at the conclusion of construction. The literature reports
that the Great Pyramid is constructed of 2.3 million blocks and that
each weighs on average 2.5 tons (2.3 Mg). Our review found no basis
or origin for these numbers, which have been widely quoted. We made
our own estimates, assuming various dimensions and a specific weight
for limestone of 160 lb/cu ft (2,563 kg/m3). These calculations
showed that there could be from 2 million to 2.8 million blocks,
depending on the assumptions. We then refined the calculations to
deduct for the void volume of corridors and chambers, subtracted an
allowance for granite used in lintels, the capstone, and ceilings,
and treated the finish layer separately. This suggested that the basic
building blocks numbered about 2 million, based on average dimensions
of 3 ft (0.9 m) wide, 3.5 ft (1 m) high, and 4 ft (1.2 m) long. ------

Inspection of our mathematical model showed that at the point that
layer or level 50 had been reached essentially two-thirds of the
blocks had been put in place. This suggests that a single large
ramp—to one face of the pyramid—would have been feasible. This ramp
would have been 175 ft (23 m) high and more than 1,000 ft (705 m)
long and would have had a grade of 15 percent—which we assumed as an
upper limit. Also, it would have contained 30 percent of the volume
of the pyramid itself. The ramp dimensions would have been influenced
by the construction schedule. To construct the pyramid on a
reasonable schedule the ramp would have had to be wide enough to
enable multiple teams to approach the working surface, deliver their
loads, and leave without hindering other workers.

Ultimately we settled on a hybrid ramp scheme. There was a single
ramp on one face of the pyramid up to level 50, from which a series of
ramps wrapping around the pyramid reached level 120. These ramps
would have been much narrower and supported by the pyramid itself and
thus could have been constructed with much less material. We
hypothesized that the blocks in the last two (outer) courses were
left out near the corner to create a takeoff point wide enough for the
primary ramp. The secondary ramps would have been used at an
elevation at which the horizontal distance was long enough for a
significant gain in elevation.

We assumed that a third method was used above this point: the
"staircase" left in the center of the construction at the very top.
The blocks for the peak would have been pushed manually from below
and pulled up by ropes over poles or bearing stones up this staircase
and then put in place. At this point the number of blocks required is
only about 7,000 for the last 20 layers. Once the capstone had been
maneuvered into place the staircase would have been filled in from
the top down to the platform level at the end of the last ramp.

An interesting possibility to consider is that the capstone might
have been brought up to the last level that was reachable by a ramp
and then jacked up as the balance of the pyramid was constructed—that
is, the pyramid was built beneath it and it rose with the remaining
levels.

The pyramid was finished with white limestone casing stones from the
quarry across the Nile River at Tura. We assume that the finish
blocks were brought by ship to Giza. These blocks were carefully
placed, then trimmed after placement to provide a smooth exterior
surface. Using the same model to calculate the number of finish
blocks that we had used to determine the number of blocks per layer,
we determined that the number was approximately 53,000.

We assumed that scaffolding was erected at the top levels to position
these blocks and that the work proceeded upward course by course.
Because the topmost blocks were half the size of the regular blocks,
they could be positioned by hand. Once the work reached the top of
the pyramid any missing blocks were filled in down the staircase and
any finishing touches were performed. As layers were completed the
ramp was gradually removed.

We determined that there were 3 workweeks of 10 days per month—8 days
of work followed by 1 to 2 days off. A workday consisted of four to
five hours in the morning followed by four to five hours after lunch.
Deductions would be necessary for holidays and religious observances,
so we used 280 working days per year as our estimate for construction
time.

We estimated that a delivery rate of 180 blocks per hour was required
from level 50 to level 74 and then used this rate to determine if the
ramp size and number of crews were feasible. This seemed possible. We
then determined that at the lower level the ramp would be wider and
could sustain delivery rates twice this number. Above level 75 the
delivery rate drops off because of the smaller number of blocks, so
ramp size and crew numbers are reduced. The size of crews can be
estimated in various ways. Carrying capacity will ultimately depend
on load and distance. We assumed an average crew of 20 men.

This detail indicates how casing stones were cut to the proper angle.
Unit cost estimates were developed from a variety of sources,
including the team's judgment and experience. For example, our
stonecutting estimate of two man-days per block is based on our
judgment. For the average block we assumed that a team of 20 laborers
was required to pull a sled up the ramp and onto the work area. This
would require four hours on average (up to level 50), which meant
that a team could move two blocks per day. Ten man-days were required,
therefore, to move each block into place.


For estimations regarding excavation and ramp construction, we
consulted turn-of-the-century civil engineering handbooks and
established unit rates for moving earth manually. This corresponded
to about 1 cu yd/h (0.8 m3/h), with time added depending on the
distance the material was carried. We estimated that at an average
distance the rate was 0.03 d/cu ft (0.1 d/m3). We also prepared a
manpower labor forecast. Once courses 1 through 50 were completed the
labor requirements dropped off considerably; additionally, the
skilled labor requirements are consistent with a workers' village of
4,000 to 5,000 persons on-site. The total labor expended is 36.7
million days, or approximately 131,200 man-years. Thus the average
labor force over the 10-year duration of the project is therefore
13,200 men.
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Old 13.01.2007., 11:49   #63
And finally:

We learned that workers were paid in grain—to make bread and beer—as
well as in oil, other foods, and cloth. Payments differed, of course,
depending on the level of skill and rank. Ancient records indicate
that a superintendent earned 8 jugs of beer and 16 loaves of bread
daily. We arbitrarily prorated these numbers to estimate payments to
other classes of workers. While this is undoubtedly an
oversimplification, it provides a rough measure of the total cost of
the construction. There was a barter economy in place then, so a
worker with one set of skills might perform work for another, who
would return the favor by making something for him. There was also
some moonlighting going on as workers used their free time to work
for third parties. Thus the total labor costs for construction of the
pyramid were approximately 111 million jugs of beer and 126 million
loaves of bread over the 10-year span of the project. The production
capacity for agrarian Egypt at that time suggests that it was
perfectly plausible for the economy to support such an undertaking
over that period of time.

While there is uncertainty as to precisely how the Egyptians built
the Great Pyramid, there is certainty about the fact that it was done.
The pyramid stands today as awesome testimony to the skill and sheer
determination of the ancient race that built it. We must also stand
in awe of their program management techniques, as it is equally
certain that they had highly developed administrative and planning
skills. The complexity and logistical requirements of this project
are simply extraordinary.

Craig B. Smith, P.E., Ph.D., is the chief operating officer of
Daniel, Mann, Johnson & Mendenhall in Los Angeles. He explained this
project in the television special "The Great Builders of Egypt,"
which aired on the Arts & Entertainment channel earlier this year."


--------



Eto, vidi se kak je tema ozbiljna, kao i različita razmišljanja o tome...
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Old 13.01.2007., 12:02   #64
Kako i sami stručnjaci na kraju ovog podužeg i sasvim objektivnog teksta kažu kako je građenje te piramide nešto u svakom smisli extraordinary - onda i dokazi za to mogu također biti "extraordinary" (inače bi valjda znali kak tak nekaj izgradit u dvorištu).
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Old 13.01.2007., 15:44   #65
Quote:
Endimion17 kaže:

nema poništavanja gravitacije zvučnim valovima. to je NEMOGUĆE.


kvragu, trebalo mi je niti 10 minuta da dokažem da su ovo gluposti.
ljudi moji, zašto vjerujete u sve što nađete na Internetu? zar ste TAKO naivni?
Taj čovjek je opisao što je vidio, i donošene su predpostavke na osnovu njegovog opisa. Njegov opis dolazi od osjetilnog opažanja što znači da nam ne daje sve informacije o tom procesu. Možda se tim vibracijama stvara neki još nama nepoznati efekt. Naše znanje o strukturi materijala je nepotpuno, još uvijek neznamo sve. Tako da nemožeš govoriti samo na osnovu opisa da je to 100% nemoguće.

Gdje sam rekao da vjerujem u taj opis. Mogu ga uzeti u obzir (sa velikom dozom rezerve) i to je sve.
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Old 13.01.2007., 17:29   #66
[QUOTE=Endimion17]
Quote:
to s budistima je sranje. nije njihova religija ništa posebnija od bilo koje druge. to što je popularno "brijati na istočno" je druga stvar, stvar zapadnjačke dosade životom
Oznaka 17 kod tebe je vjerovatno oznaka tvojih godina....jer samo bi netko sa sedamnest povezivao u jednoj rečenici budizam sa letećim kamenjem i sa sranjem.

Quote:
ne dižu oni nikakva kamenja, bez brige. nema levitacije. to su sve trikovi.
Alexandra David Neal je godinama kao Europljanka boravila na Tibetu i vjerovatno je lagala kad je pisala o životu na krovu svijeta.
Pročitaj ništa ne košta.

Ako su već tehnologiju imali za dizanje kamenja i spajanje da ne može igla proći između kamenja (vožnja bolida je zanimljiva a da bolid nisi niti vidio) zanima me kako se onda objašnjava rad tolikog broja ljudi u tako drugom periodu što pripada generacijskim poslovima a da ne utječe na cjelokupnu strukturu ekonomski-politički-sociološki???

Zašto ima malo zapisa o tome kad je to kapitalni rad jer da se to žrtvovalo i uz robovski rad trebalo je biti na tisuće klesara, zanatlija, pa logistika dovoza materijala, drva, hrane, stražara, inžinjera za kojeg bi sama NASA ubila da ih se dočepa.....da se je sav trud i vrijeme uložilo u najbitniji dio Egipta, a to je Nil i napravilo nadvodnjavanje bile bi tri žetve što znači automatski više hrane, sposobnost za izvršavanje drugih radove, za rat jer su stalno bili u sukobila, rezerva za sušnije godine...???
Ići u tako kapitalno djelo znači imati dovoljno hrane, organizacijskih sposobnosti, sigurnost -iznutra i izvana i ZNANJA....i vremena...i što je najbitne SVRHU.
Kako to da je samo Velika piramida fantastično djelo a sve ostale kao da dobro debelo kaskaju tehnološki za njome?
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Old 13.01.2007., 18:03   #67
Quote:
Nemruth Dagi kaže:
Oznaka 17 kod tebe je vjerovatno oznaka tvojih godina....jer samo bi netko sa sedamnest povezivao u jednoj rečenici budizam sa letećim kamenjem i sa sranjem.
Senorita, Endimion17 nije taj koji je izjavio takvu "činjenicu", nego 3-4 druge osobe.

Quote:
Nemruth Dagi kaže:
Zašto ima malo zapisa o tome kad je to kapitalni rad jer da se to žrtvovalo i uz robovski rad trebalo je biti na tisuće klesara, zanatlija, pa logistika dovoza materijala, drva, hrane, stražara, inžinjera...
E, pa, da si pogledala koju dokumetarnu emisiju o tome, vidjela bi da su faraoni bili poprilično škrti kad je u pitanju otkrivanje svojih tajni i imovine - nisu se dvoumili oko toga da li treba spaliti nacrte i poubijati arhitekte - to su činili
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Old 13.01.2007., 18:16   #68
[QUOTE=Nemruth Dagi]
Quote:
Endimion17 kaže:
Oznaka 17 kod tebe je vjerovatno oznaka tvojih godina....jer samo bi netko sa sedamnest povezivao u jednoj rečenici budizam sa letećim kamenjem i sa sranjem.
hm, nisi prvi koji to pita, izživciran činjenicama...
da, 17 je broj mojih godina u praskozorje mog korištenja interneta. vrlo, vrlo stari nickname, yes.
zadovoljan?


i ne, kamenje ne možeš dizati pjesmom, čak niti male kamenčiće. kamoli višetonske babulje. utuvi to u svoju glavicu.
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Old 13.01.2007., 20:23   #69
Quote:
Klis kaže:
Taj čovjek je opisao što je vidio, i donošene su predpostavke na osnovu njegovog opisa. Njegov opis dolazi od osjetilnog opažanja što znači da nam ne daje sve informacije o tom procesu. Možda se tim vibracijama stvara neki još nama nepoznati efekt. Naše znanje o strukturi materijala je nepotpuno, još uvijek neznamo sve.
gradnja gradevina na taj nacin se spominje i u kulturama juzne amerike
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Old 13.01.2007., 20:29   #70
Quote:
Alter kaže:
gradnja gradevina na taj nacin se spominje i u kulturama juzne amerike
slazem se sa tobom,

moguce je da se zvukom velke frekvencije stvari odrzvaju u lebdecem stanju i to su dokazali Japanski fizicari, zvuk je promjena tlaka zraka, kad se membrana zvuka titra dogadja se promjena u zraku i ta promjena uzrokuje titranje bubnjica pa cujemo... bla...bla...bla...

E is ada kda bi dobili zvuk ogromne frekvencije mogli bi na zvucnim valovima prenostiti tvari... zar ne?
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Old 13.01.2007., 20:31   #71
Quote:
Aerial_51 kaže:
Senorita, Endimion17 nije taj koji je izjavio takvu "činjenicu", nego 3-4 druge osobe.



E, pa, da si pogledala koju dokumetarnu emisiju o tome, vidjela bi da su faraoni bili poprilično škrti kad je u pitanju otkrivanje svojih tajni i imovine - nisu se dvoumili oko toga da li treba spaliti nacrte i poubijati arhitekte - to su činili
U Keopsovoj piramidi nepostiji niti jedan znak, niti jedna slika, niti jedno obiljezije kao u drugim piramidama i grobnicama u kojima su pronadjene mumije faraona
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Old 13.01.2007., 20:33   #72
Evo vam zanimljiv detalj

Minijaturni elektronski robot je nedavno prošao uski put od 65 metara od "Kraljeve komore" i potvrdio da ovi otvori gledaju direktno u sazvježđa Zeta Orionis i Alfa Drakonis. Iz Kraljičine komore otvori su upereni prema Sirijusu i Orionu. Očito je da su originalni graditelji s razlogom upirali prstom ka ovim planetama.

Već klasično djelo Robert Bauvala "The Orion Mystery" detaljno obrazlaže da raspored tri piramide u Gizi odslikava pozicije tri glavne zvijezde u Orionovoj konstelaciji.

Godina je 1798. Napoleon osvaja Egipat i hita u Veliku piramidu sa svojom pratnjom. Dolazi do "kraljeve komore", traži od svojih pratilaca da ga ostave samog i... provodi noć ležeci u granitnom sarkofagu. Ujutro, vidno blijed i uzbuđen, napušta piramidu. Na upit svojih generala o doživljenom iskustvu, odgovara: "I da vam kažem, ne biste mi nikada vjerovali." Dvadesetak godina kasnije, protjeran na Svetoj Heleni, na isti upit ponovo ne odgovara. Svoju tajnu je odnio sa sobom u grob.
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Old 13.01.2007., 21:47   #73
Piramida, jel se to meni čini, ili ti u istom threadu 2-3 puta copi/paste-aš svoj jedan te isti tekst?! Ponavljanje ga ne čini istinom, znaš

mani se brate babskih priča o Napoleonu, daj stavi taj link sa Japanskim fizičarima? Imaju li negdje konkretni pokusi da se mogu naći na webu?
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Old 13.01.2007., 21:49   #74
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lesa kaže:
Piramida, jel se to meni čini, ili ti u istom threadu 2-3 puta copi/paste-aš svoj jedan te isti tekst?! Ponavljanje ga ne čini istinom, znaš

mani se brate babskih priča o Napoleonu, daj stavi taj link sa Japanskim fizičarima? Imaju li negdje konkretni pokusi da se mogu naći na webu?
pa ako i jesam slucajno je... a prica o Napoleonu je istinita
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Old 13.01.2007., 21:51   #75
Quote:
Piramida_Sunca kaže:
pa ako i jesam slucajno je... a prica o Napoleonu je istinita
a ova o japanskim fizičarima? To je ipak jedno 250 godina bliži događaj pa za njega mora da imaš neki dokaz? Ili link barem...
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Old 13.01.2007., 22:20   #76
Quote:
lesa kaže:
a ova o japanskim fizičarima? To je ipak jedno 250 godina bliži događaj pa za njega mora da imaš neki dokaz? Ili link barem...
trazim link, pitat cu osmanagica di je on nasao to, kad nadjem stavit cu
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Old 14.01.2007., 01:03   #77
Piramide su precizno građene = piramide su gradili alieni. Logika za vola ubit. Ovu je valjda radio pijani alien:

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Old 14.01.2007., 01:49   #78
Quote:
freudrick kaže:
Piramide su precizno građene = piramide su gradili alieni. Logika za vola ubit. Ovu je valjda radio pijani alien:

daj ti bolju logiku pa reci ko ih je radio i na koji nacin
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Old 14.01.2007., 02:43   #79
vezano za te piramide koje smanjuju kosinu, negdje sam pročitao da je to bilo tako u početku gradnje takvih građevina. počeli bi graditi strmo, pa bi došli do velikih poteškoća, nije bilo stabilno i slično, pa bi smanjili kosinu.
kasnije, kad se gradnja usavršila, prestali su tako graditi. čini mi se da su stupnjevite piramide bile preteče ovakvih s dva nagiba, a zatim su došle pravilne.
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Old 14.01.2007., 03:26   #80
Bravo Endi u ovom si u pravu. Samo one "prave" piramide nisu gradili ljudi (Keopsova) oni su ovim manjim u stvari pokušavali kopirati one velike koje su našli i koje su već bile tamo
Dakle - imamo prave i kopije, i zato su egiptolozi zbunjeni, jer to ne razlikuju
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